Condition Monitoring Technologies for Steel Wire Ropes – A Review
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Published
Nov 16, 2020
Rune Schlanbusch
Espen Oland
Eric R. Bechhoefer
Abstract
In this research, we review condition-monitoring technologies for offshore steel wire ropes (SWR). Such ropes are used within several offshore applications including cranes for load handling such as subsea construction at depths up to 3-4000 meters, drilling lines, marine riser tensioner lines and anchor lines. For mooring, there is a clear tendency for using fiber ropes. Especially for heavy-lift cranes and subsea deployment, winches with strong ropes of up to 180 mm in diameter may be required, which has a considerable cost per rope, especially for large water depths. Today’s practice is to discard the rope after a predetermined number of uses due to fatigue from bending over sheaves with a large safety factor, especially for systems regulated by active heave compensation (AHC). Other sources of degradation are abrasion, fretting, corrosion and extreme forces, and are typically accelerated due to undersized or poorly maintained sheaves, groove type, lack of lubrication and excessive load.
Non-destructive testing techniques for SWR have been developed over a period of 100 years. Most notably are the magnetic leakage techniques (electromagnetic methods), which are widely used within several industries such as mining and construction.
The content reviewed in this research is primarily the developments the last five years within the topics of electromagnetic method, acoustic emissions (AE), ultrasound, X- and γ-rays, fiber optics, optical and thermal vision and current signature analysis. Each technique is thoroughly presented and discussed for the application of subsea construction. Assessments include ability to detect localized flaws (i.e. broken wire) both internally and externally, estimated loss of metallic cross sectional area, robustness with respect to the rough offshore environment, ability to evaluate both rope and end fittings, and ability to work during operation.
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Keywords
condition monitoring, Subsea, offshore, Acoustic Emissions, ultrasonic guided waves, Review, Steel wire ropes, computer vision, electromagnetic method, ionizing radiation, fiber optics, thermovision, current signature analysis
References
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Cao, Q., Liu, D., Zhou, J. & Codrington, J. (2012). Nondestructive and quantitative evaluation of wire rope based on radial basis function neural network using eddy current inspection. NDT&E International, vol. 46, pp. 7- 13.
Casey, N. F. & Laura, P. A. A. (1997). A review of the acoustic-emission monitoring of wire rope. Ocean Engineering, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 935 – 947.
Collini, L. & Degasperi, F. (2014). MRT detection of fretting fatigue cracks in a cableway locked coil rope. Case Studies in Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation, vol. 2, pp. 64 – 70.
Cortázer, D., Larrondo, H. A., Laura, P. A. A. & Avalos, D. R. (1996). A low-cost fiber-optic system for monitoring the state of structural health of a mechanical cable. Ocean Engineering, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 193 – 199.
Drummond, G., Watson, J. F. & Acarnley, P. P. (2007). Acoustic emission from wire ropes during proof load and fatigue testing. NDT&E International, vol. 40, pp. 94 – 101.
Gaillet, L., Zejli, H., Laksimi, A., Tessier, C., Drissi-Habti, M. & Benmedakhene, S. (2009). Detection by acoustic emission of damage in cable anchorage. Proceedings of the International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering.
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Hay, T. R. (2012). Bridge Cable Inspection with Long Range Ultrasound. Final Report for Highway IDEA Project 152.
Henao, H., Fatemi, S. M. J. R., Capoline, G. A. & Sieg-Zieba, S. (2011). Wire Rope Fault Detection in a Hoisting Winch System by Motor Torque and Current Signature Analysis. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 1727 – 1736.
Hiltbrunner, R. H. (1957). Le Controle Magnétique des cables avec le défectoscope integra. Economie Tech. Transports, no. 119.
Jomdecha, C. & Prateepasen, A. (2009). Design of modified electromagnetic main-flux for steel wire rope inspection. NDT&E International, vol. 42, pp. 77 – 83.
Koetsier, T. & Ceccarelli, M. (Eds.). (2012). Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Publishing, pp. 381 – 394.
Krešák, J., Peterka, P., Kropuch, S. & Novák, L. (2014). Measurement of tight in steel ropes by a mean of thermovision. Measurement, vol. 50, pp. 93 – 98.
Kumar, V., (2010). Fiber Optic Methane and Strain Sensors for Mines. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Photonics (ICP).
Kwun, H., Parvin, A. J. & Laiche, E. C. (2012). Magnetostrictive Sensor Probe for Guided-Wave Inspection and Monitoring of Wire Ropes/Cables and Anchor Rods. Patent US 8,098,065 B2.
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Pernot, S. (2017). Wirelets for assessing the condition of ropes: a dive into magnetic signals. Proceedings of the OIPEEC Conference.
Pu, H., Xie, X., Jia, S. & Liang, G. (2010). Research on Detection for Broken Wires in Non-rotating Rope Based on SVM. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering.
Radovanović, I. D., Rajović, N. M., Rajović, V. M. & Jovičić, N. S. (2011). Signal Acquisition and Processing in the Magnetic Defectoscopy of Steel Wire Ropes. Proceedings of the Telecommunications forum.
Raišutis, R., Kažys, R., Mažeika, L., Žukauskas, E., Samaitis, V. & A. Jankauskas (2014). Ultrasonic guided wave-based testing technique for inspection of multi-wire rope structures. NDT&E International, vol. 62, pp. 40 – 49.
Reinelt, O., Winter, S. & Mehr, M. (2017). Online monitoring of running ropes. Proceedings of the OPIEEC Conference.
Robar, T. M., Veronesi, W. A., Stucky, P. A. & Gieras. J. F. (2006). Method and Apparatus for Detecting Elevator Rope Degradation Using Electrical Resistance. Patent US 7,123,030 B2.
Schlanbusch, R., Oland, E. & Bechhoefer, E. (2016). Review of Condition Monitoring Technologies for Offshore Steel Wire Ropes. Proceedings of the Machinery Failure Prevention Technology (MPFT) Conference.
Semmelink, A. (1956). Electromagnetic testing of winding ropes. Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 206 – 244.
Slesarev, D., Sukhorukov, D. & Shpakov, I. (2017). Automated magnetic rope condition monitoring: concept and practical experience. Proceedings of the OIPEEC Conference.
Sukhorukov, V. V., Slesarev, D. A. & Vorontsov, A. N. (2014). Electromagnetic Inspection and Diagnostics of Steel Ropes: Technology, Effectiveness and Problems. Materials Evaluation, vol. 72, no. 8, pp. 1019 – 1027.
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van der Walt, N. T. (1989). Method and Apparatus for Magnetic Saturation Testing a Wire Rope for Defects. Patent US 4,827,215.
Verret, R. (2012). Method and Device for Inspecting a Traveling Wire Cable. Patent US 8,254,660 B2.
US Army Technical manual: Nondestructive Inspection Methods, Basic Theory (2013), TM 1-1500-335-23.
Wacker, E.-S. & Denzler, J. (2013). Enhanced anomaly detection in wire ropes by combining structure and appearance. Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 34, pp. 942 – 953.
Wait, J. R. (1979). Review of Electromagnetic Methods in Nondestructive Testing of Wire Ropes. Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 892 – 903.
Wall, T. F. (1931). Electromagnetic Testing of Steel Wire Ropes and Other Articles of Magnetizable Material. Patent US 1,823,810 A.
Wall, T. F. & Hainsworth, C. H. (1932). The penetration of alternating magnetic flux in wire ropes. Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, vol. 71, no. 428, pp. 374 – 379.
Weischedel, H. R. (2003). Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection of Wire Ropes. Report, NDT Technology Inc.
Weischedel, H. R. (2013). Magnetic Inspection Device and Method for Detecting Loss in Metallic Cross Section. Patent US 8,368,395 B2.
Winter, S., Moll D., Eisinger, R., Kuehner, K., Guttengeber, E, Proehl, A. & Eichinger, M. (2014). System and Method for Rope Testing. Patent US 8,718,352 B2.
Xiao-yong, Z. & Xiao-hong, Z. (2012). Feature Extraction and Analysis of Magnetic Non-destructive Testing for Wire Rope. Proceedings of the International Conference on Digital Manufacturing & Automation.
Xiuli, C., Yang, L., Zhihua, G. & Jianjun, Z. (2009). Structure and Character Analysis of a New Type of Steel Wire Rope NDT Detector Apparatus. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation.
Xu, J., Wu, X. & Sun, P. (2013). Detecting broken-wire flaws at multiple locations in the same wire of prestressing strands using guided waves. Ultrasonics, vol. 53, pp. 150 – 156.
Yoshioka, T., Sasai, H. & Nishiyori, K. (2013). Wire Rope Flaw Detector for Increasing Accuracy Independent of Speed While Conserving Detector Size. Patent US 8,390,281 B2.
Zhang, X. (2009). The Research of Stress Monitor and Broken Testing for Steel Wire Rope. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation.
Zhijuan, D. & Minhua, W. (2012). Quantitative identification of broke wire for steel rope based on BP neural network. Proceedings of the International Conference on Automatic Control and Artificial Intelligence.
Bonetti, C., Martyna, R., & Martyna, M. (2017). The new frontier of NDE using a combination of MRT, 3D Measurement and Vision System. Proceedings of the OIPEEC Conference
Canova, A., Furno, E., Buco, A., Ressia, M., Rossi, D. & Vusini, B. (2014). Wavelet analysis: application to the magneto-inductive testing. Proceedings of the European Conference on Non-Destructive Testing.
Cao, Q., Liu, D., Zhou, J. & Codrington, J. (2012). Nondestructive and quantitative evaluation of wire rope based on radial basis function neural network using eddy current inspection. NDT&E International, vol. 46, pp. 7- 13.
Casey, N. F. & Laura, P. A. A. (1997). A review of the acoustic-emission monitoring of wire rope. Ocean Engineering, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 935 – 947.
Collini, L. & Degasperi, F. (2014). MRT detection of fretting fatigue cracks in a cableway locked coil rope. Case Studies in Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation, vol. 2, pp. 64 – 70.
Cortázer, D., Larrondo, H. A., Laura, P. A. A. & Avalos, D. R. (1996). A low-cost fiber-optic system for monitoring the state of structural health of a mechanical cable. Ocean Engineering, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 193 – 199.
Drummond, G., Watson, J. F. & Acarnley, P. P. (2007). Acoustic emission from wire ropes during proof load and fatigue testing. NDT&E International, vol. 40, pp. 94 – 101.
Gaillet, L., Zejli, H., Laksimi, A., Tessier, C., Drissi-Habti, M. & Benmedakhene, S. (2009). Detection by acoustic emission of damage in cable anchorage. Proceedings of the International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering.
Hamelin, M. & Kitzinger, F. (1998). Wire Rope Damage Index Monitoring Device. Patent US 5,804,964.
Hay, T. R. (2012). Bridge Cable Inspection with Long Range Ultrasound. Final Report for Highway IDEA Project 152.
Henao, H., Fatemi, S. M. J. R., Capoline, G. A. & Sieg-Zieba, S. (2011). Wire Rope Fault Detection in a Hoisting Winch System by Motor Torque and Current Signature Analysis. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 1727 – 1736.
Hiltbrunner, R. H. (1957). Le Controle Magnétique des cables avec le défectoscope integra. Economie Tech. Transports, no. 119.
Jomdecha, C. & Prateepasen, A. (2009). Design of modified electromagnetic main-flux for steel wire rope inspection. NDT&E International, vol. 42, pp. 77 – 83.
Koetsier, T. & Ceccarelli, M. (Eds.). (2012). Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Publishing, pp. 381 – 394.
Krešák, J., Peterka, P., Kropuch, S. & Novák, L. (2014). Measurement of tight in steel ropes by a mean of thermovision. Measurement, vol. 50, pp. 93 – 98.
Kumar, V., (2010). Fiber Optic Methane and Strain Sensors for Mines. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Photonics (ICP).
Kwun, H., Parvin, A. J. & Laiche, E. C. (2012). Magnetostrictive Sensor Probe for Guided-Wave Inspection and Monitoring of Wire Ropes/Cables and Anchor Rods. Patent US 8,098,065 B2.
Le Cam, V., Gaillet, L., Perrin, M., Tessier, C. & Cottineau, L.-M. (2009). A smart and wireless sensors network for cable health monitoring. Proceedings of the International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering.
Lei, H.-M., Liang, R.-H., Tao, W., Mao, Y.-M. & Zhao, H. (2014). Broken Wires Inspection for Coated Steel Belts in Elevator System Using MFL Method. Proceedings of the IEEE Far East Forum on Nondestructive Evaluation/Testing.
Mao, Q, Ma, H., Zhang, X. & Zhang, D. (2011). Research on Magnetic Signal Extracting and Filtering of Coal Mine Wire Rope Belt Conveyer Defects. Proceedings of the International Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation.
Papadimitriou, W. G. & Papadimitriou, S. (2014). Autonomous Remaining Useful Life Estimation. Patent US 8,831,894 B2.
Peng, P.-C. & Wang, C.-Y. (2015). Use of gamma rays in the inspection of steel wire ropes in suspension bridges. NDT&E International, vol. 75, pp. 80 – 86.
Pernot, S. (2017). Wirelets for assessing the condition of ropes: a dive into magnetic signals. Proceedings of the OIPEEC Conference.
Pu, H., Xie, X., Jia, S. & Liang, G. (2010). Research on Detection for Broken Wires in Non-rotating Rope Based on SVM. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering.
Radovanović, I. D., Rajović, N. M., Rajović, V. M. & Jovičić, N. S. (2011). Signal Acquisition and Processing in the Magnetic Defectoscopy of Steel Wire Ropes. Proceedings of the Telecommunications forum.
Raišutis, R., Kažys, R., Mažeika, L., Žukauskas, E., Samaitis, V. & A. Jankauskas (2014). Ultrasonic guided wave-based testing technique for inspection of multi-wire rope structures. NDT&E International, vol. 62, pp. 40 – 49.
Reinelt, O., Winter, S. & Mehr, M. (2017). Online monitoring of running ropes. Proceedings of the OPIEEC Conference.
Robar, T. M., Veronesi, W. A., Stucky, P. A. & Gieras. J. F. (2006). Method and Apparatus for Detecting Elevator Rope Degradation Using Electrical Resistance. Patent US 7,123,030 B2.
Schlanbusch, R., Oland, E. & Bechhoefer, E. (2016). Review of Condition Monitoring Technologies for Offshore Steel Wire Ropes. Proceedings of the Machinery Failure Prevention Technology (MPFT) Conference.
Semmelink, A. (1956). Electromagnetic testing of winding ropes. Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 206 – 244.
Slesarev, D., Sukhorukov, D. & Shpakov, I. (2017). Automated magnetic rope condition monitoring: concept and practical experience. Proceedings of the OIPEEC Conference.
Sukhorukov, V. V., Slesarev, D. A. & Vorontsov, A. N. (2014). Electromagnetic Inspection and Diagnostics of Steel Ropes: Technology, Effectiveness and Problems. Materials Evaluation, vol. 72, no. 8, pp. 1019 – 1027.
Sun, Y., Lui, S., Li, R., Ye, Z., Kang, Y. & Chen, S. (2015). A new magnetic flux leakage sensor based on open magnetizing method and its on-line automated structural health monitoring methodology. Structural Health Monitoring, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 583 – 603.
Tian, J., Zhou, J., Wang, H. & Meng, G. (2015). Literature Review of Research on the Technology of Wire Rope Nondestructive Inspection in China and Abroad. MATEC Web of Conferences 22:03025.
van der Walt, N. T. (1989). Method and Apparatus for Magnetic Saturation Testing a Wire Rope for Defects. Patent US 4,827,215.
Verret, R. (2012). Method and Device for Inspecting a Traveling Wire Cable. Patent US 8,254,660 B2.
US Army Technical manual: Nondestructive Inspection Methods, Basic Theory (2013), TM 1-1500-335-23.
Wacker, E.-S. & Denzler, J. (2013). Enhanced anomaly detection in wire ropes by combining structure and appearance. Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 34, pp. 942 – 953.
Wait, J. R. (1979). Review of Electromagnetic Methods in Nondestructive Testing of Wire Ropes. Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 892 – 903.
Wall, T. F. (1931). Electromagnetic Testing of Steel Wire Ropes and Other Articles of Magnetizable Material. Patent US 1,823,810 A.
Wall, T. F. & Hainsworth, C. H. (1932). The penetration of alternating magnetic flux in wire ropes. Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, vol. 71, no. 428, pp. 374 – 379.
Weischedel, H. R. (2003). Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection of Wire Ropes. Report, NDT Technology Inc.
Weischedel, H. R. (2013). Magnetic Inspection Device and Method for Detecting Loss in Metallic Cross Section. Patent US 8,368,395 B2.
Winter, S., Moll D., Eisinger, R., Kuehner, K., Guttengeber, E, Proehl, A. & Eichinger, M. (2014). System and Method for Rope Testing. Patent US 8,718,352 B2.
Xiao-yong, Z. & Xiao-hong, Z. (2012). Feature Extraction and Analysis of Magnetic Non-destructive Testing for Wire Rope. Proceedings of the International Conference on Digital Manufacturing & Automation.
Xiuli, C., Yang, L., Zhihua, G. & Jianjun, Z. (2009). Structure and Character Analysis of a New Type of Steel Wire Rope NDT Detector Apparatus. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation.
Xu, J., Wu, X. & Sun, P. (2013). Detecting broken-wire flaws at multiple locations in the same wire of prestressing strands using guided waves. Ultrasonics, vol. 53, pp. 150 – 156.
Yoshioka, T., Sasai, H. & Nishiyori, K. (2013). Wire Rope Flaw Detector for Increasing Accuracy Independent of Speed While Conserving Detector Size. Patent US 8,390,281 B2.
Zhang, X. (2009). The Research of Stress Monitor and Broken Testing for Steel Wire Rope. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation.
Zhijuan, D. & Minhua, W. (2012). Quantitative identification of broke wire for steel rope based on BP neural network. Proceedings of the International Conference on Automatic Control and Artificial Intelligence.
Section
Technical Papers